what-weve-shed-participating in-the-lottery

what-weve-shed-participating in-the-lottery

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t my neighborhood comfort retail store, and Virtually surely at yours, too, it is possible to order upward of fifty unique kinds of scratch-off lottery tickets. To do so, you should be not less than eighteen decades aged, Although the tickets appear to be the décor to get a kindergarten classroom. The dominant themes are primary hues, dollar signs, and glossy, as in gold bars, shooting stars, glinting horseshoes, and stacks of silver coins. When you are investigating a stable wall of them, Additionally they resemble—based upon the palette, font selections, and basic flashy hecticness—the mid-nineties World wide web. Some of them are named for other games, like the Monopoly X5, the Double Blackjack, and also the Relatives Feud, but most are simple about the point of buying them: Demonstrate Me $ten,000!, $100,000 Blessed, Dollars Explosion, Hard cash Is King, Blazing Hot Income, Big Hard cash Riches. If your style operates toward Quick Ca£h or Crimson Ball Money Doubler, You should purchase just one for only a buck; if you prefer VIP Club or $two,000,000 Gold Rush, just one ticket will established you again 30 pounds. All this is before you get on the Decide three, Decide on four, Powerball, and Mega Thousands and thousands tickets, that happen to be comparatively staid in visual appeal—they seem like Scantron sheets—and therefore are printed out at the time of invest in.

The strangest of the many Unusual issues about these tickets is that, compared with other ease-keep staples—Utz potato chips, Entenmann’s cinnamon-swirl buns, $1.98 bottles of wine—These are brought to you personally by your state governing administration. Only Alabama, Alaska, Hawaii, Nevada, and Utah are certainly not during the business of selling lottery tickets. Everywhere you go else, Blazing Incredibly hot Income and its ilk are, like state parks and driver’s licenses, a federal government services.

How this arrived to get is the subject of a great new reserve, “For your Dollar plus a Dream: Condition Lotteries in Modern The us,” because of the historian Jonathan D. Cohen. At the heart of Cohen’s reserve is really a peculiar contradiction: on the just one hand, the lottery is vastly a lot less lucrative than its proponents make it out to become, a deception that has arrive with the cost of community coffers and public expert services. On the flip side, it is so well-liked that it is both exceptionally worthwhile with the personal providers which make and provide tickets and monetarily crippling for its most focused gamers. One in two American adults purchases a lottery ticket a minimum of yearly, one in four purchases one particular at the least as soon as per month, and essentially the most avid players obtain them at charges Which may shock you. At my community store, some consumers snap up overall rolls—at a bare minimum, 300 pounds’ worthy of of tickets—and others clearly show up each morning, Enjoy right until they acquire anything, then come back in the night and do it once more. All of this, recurring daily at grocery stores and liquor merchants and mini-marts across the nation, renders the lottery a ninety-1-billion-dollar enterprise. “Us residents devote additional on lottery tickets annually than on cigarettes, espresso, or smartphones,” Cohen writes, “plus they expend more on lottery tickets on a yearly basis than on video streaming expert services, concert tickets, books, and Motion picture tickets blended.”

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As All those two sets of comparisons counsel, lottery tickets can look like possibly a benign method of leisure or a unsafe dependancy. The query that lurks within “For the Dollar and also a Desire” is which class they truly belong to—and, accordingly, regardless of whether governments charged with endorsing the general welfare must be from the business of manufacturing them, publicizing them, and profiting from them.

Lotteries are an ancient pastime. They have been frequent inside the Roman Empire—Nero was a admirer of them; make of that what you will—and they are attested to all over the Bible, where the casting of loads is useful for almost everything from selecting the subsequent king of Israel to picking who will get to help keep Jesus’ garments once the Crucifixion. In lots of of those early occasions, they ended up deployed either being a sort of social gathering sport—throughout Roman Saturnalias, tickets ended up distributed absolutely free to attendees, several of whom won extravagant prizes—or as a way of divining God’s will. Generally, nevertheless, lotteries have been arranged to raise dollars for community will work. The earliest recognized Variation of keno dates for the Han dynasty and is said to have aided purchase The nice Wall of China. Two hundreds of years later, Caesar Augustus started off a lottery to subsidize repairs for the town of Rome.

From the fourteen-hundreds, the practice was widespread within the Small Nations, which relied on lotteries to develop city fortifications and, afterwards, to deliver charity for your bad. Shortly more than enough, the craze built its solution to England, in which, in 1567, Queen Elizabeth I chartered the nation’s first lottery, designating its revenue for “reparation in the Havens and toughness in the Realme.” Tickets Expense ten shillings, a hefty sum back then, and, As well as the potential prize price, each one served for a get-out-of-jail-totally free card, practically; each lottery participant was entitled to immunity from arrest, aside from certain felonies for example piracy, murder, and treason.

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The lottery didn't a great deal of spread to The us from England as assist unfold England into The usa: the ecu settlement on the continent was financed partially via lotteries. They then grew to become popular while in the colonies them selves, Regardless of powerful Protestant proscriptions in opposition to gambling. While in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, which held its very first authorized lottery in 1745, dice and participating in cards were being forbidden even in private residences.

That contradiction can be discussed partially by exigency; regardless of what its ethical bent, early The usa was brief on profits and long on the need for public performs. Over time, Furthermore, it grew to become, as Cohen notes, “outlined politically by its aversion to taxation.” That created the lottery an desirable substitute for elevating cash, which was used for funding every thing from civil protection to the construction of churches. Harvard, Yale, and Princeton were all financed partly by lotteries, plus the Continental Congress attempted to make use of 1 to help purchase the Revolutionary War. (Lotteries formed a rare issue of settlement amongst Thomas Jefferson, who regarded them as not Substantially riskier than farming, and Alexander Hamilton, who grasped what would turn out to be their essence: that everyone “would favor a small probability of winning an awesome deal to a great potential for successful very little.”) And, like Just about anything else in early America, lotteries were being tousled with the slave trade, occasionally in unpredictable techniques. George Washington as soon as managed a Virginia-based lottery whose prizes included human beings, and a single previously enslaved gentleman, Denmark Vesey, ordered his independence after successful a South Carolina lottery and went on to foment a slave rebellion.

This initial era of your American lottery was brought to an conclude by popular concern about mismanagement and malfeasance. Involving 1833 and 1880, each and every condition but just one banned the practice, leaving only the infamously corrupt Louisiana State Lottery Firm in Procedure. Irrespective of its identify, the L.S.L.C. correctly operated across the nation, sending adverts and advertising tickets by mail. So powerful was it that, as Cohen clarifies, it took the federal governing administration to eliminate it off; in 1890, Congress passed a regulation prohibiting the interstate marketing or sale of lottery tickets, thereby devastating the Louisiana activity and, In the intervening time, putting a prevent to condition lotteries in the usa.

Predictably, inside the absence of lawful lotteries, illegal types flourished—over all, quantities games, which awarded each day prizes for properly guessing a three-digit selection. To prevent allegations that the game was fastened, every day’s successful amount was based upon a publicly out there but continuously altering source, such as the amount of cash traded to the The big apple Stock Exchange. Figures video games were enormously well-liked almost everywhere—in 1964, they raked in two hundred million bucks, about two billion in currently’s cash, in New York City on your own—but Specially so in Black communities, the place they furnished a A lot required source of revenue. This was real mostly for his or her organizers and runners, whose ranks integrated Ella Fitzgerald and Malcolm X, but often also for players who lucked into a windfall, for example Luther Theophilus Powell, who gained 10 thousand dollars over a 20-five dollar guess from the nineteen-fifties and utilised it to buy a household in Queens for his spouse, daughter, and young son, Colin Powell.

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Eventually, figures games proved so financially rewarding which they ended up taken in excess of by organized crime, sometimes Together with the help of law enforcement officers who accepted bribes to shut down African American operators. Dutch Schultz and Vito Genovese equally utilized the sport that can help bankroll their operations, and also the Winter season Hill Gang, Whitey Bulger’s crew, acquired its start off partly by jogging figures in Somerville, outside the house Boston. Through the nineteen-fifties, escalating problem with regard to the electric power and access in the Mob culminated in a Senate investigation, the Kefauver committee, which judged earnings from gambling to get the primary economic motor of criminal offense syndicates in the usa. This declaration, as well as torrent of stories coverage it generated, had a paradoxical influence: it produced lottery video games seem so worthwhile that, after many years of dismissing them as inappropriate to the honorable business enterprise of general public company, condition governments Again started to contemplate finding in on the get.

It really is at this point that Cohen’s narrative really will get likely; Even though he nods to your early historical past with the lottery, he focusses chiefly on its contemporary incarnation. This commenced, he argues, when expanding awareness about all The cash being manufactured from the gambling organization collided with a crisis in condition funding. Inside the nineteen-sixties, underneath the load of the swelling inhabitants, rising inflation, and the cost of the Vietnam War, America’s prosperity started to wane. For several states, Specially those that presented a generous social safety Internet, balancing the budget turned increasingly tough without having either increasing taxes or slicing expert services. The issue was that both equally options were being really unpopular with voters.

For politicians confronting this issue, the lottery appeared to be an excellent Remedy: a method to maintain existing companies devoid of hiking taxes—and therefore without the need of finding punished at the polls. For them, Cohen writes, lotteries ended up basically “budgetary miracles, the possibility for states to help make earnings show up seemingly outside of thin air.” For example, in New Jersey, which had no revenue tax, no money tax, and no hunger for instituting either a person, legislators claimed that a lottery would bring in numerous countless pounds, therefore relieving them of the need to ever again contemplate the disagreeable matter of taxation.

Dismissing very long-standing ethical objections on the lottery, these new advocates reasoned that, because people ended up planning to gamble in any case, the point out may likewise pocket the gains. That argument had its limits—by its logic, governments should also sell heroin—nonetheless it gave ethical go over to folks who permitted of lotteries for other causes. Lots of white voters, Cohen writes, supported legalization given that they imagined condition-operate gambling would mainly bring in Black figures gamers, who would then foot the Monthly bill for solutions that Individuals white voters didn’t want to pay for in any case, which include far better educational facilities within the city parts that they had these days fled. (In point of fact, the oft-recurring assert that legalizing the lottery would just decriminalize current gamblers instead of produce new ones of all races proved significantly Incorrect.) Meanwhile, many African American voters supported legalization mainly because they believed that it would simplicity their friction With all the police, for whom figures online games experienced very long served as being a explanation—sometimes genuine, in some cases not—to interrogate and imprison people of color.

Lottery opponents, nonetheless, questioned both equally the ethics of funding general public products and services through gambling and also the amount of cash that states definitely stood to realize. These kinds of critics hailed from either side in the political aisle and all walks of lifestyle, but one of the most vociferous of them were devout Protestants, who regarded government-sanctioned lotteries as morally unconscionable. (Catholics, by contrast, have been overwhelmingly Professional-lottery, performed it in huge quantities when it had been legalized, and reliably flocked to other gambling games at the same time; Cohen cites the staggering indisputable fact that, in 1978, “bingo game titles hosted by Ohio Catholic significant schools took in extra money compared to the point out’s lottery.”) As 1 Methodist minister and anti-lottery activist declared at time, “There is certainly far more settlement among Protestant teams around the adverse result of gambling than on almost every other social difficulty, such as the issues of abortion, alcohol, and homosexuality.” These kinds of adverse results incorporated fostering gambling addictions, sapping money from your poor, undermining primary civic and moral beliefs by championing a path to prosperity that didn't entail merit or labor, and encouraging state governments To optimize gains even for the expenditure in their most susceptible citizens.

Even so legitimate these concerns may need been, they have been mostly dismissed. In 1964, New Hampshire, famously tax averse, permitted the main condition-run lottery of the fashionable era. 13 states followed in as a few years, all of them while in the Northeast along with the Rust Belt. In the meantime, as Cohen recounts, the country’s late-twentieth-century tax revolt intensified. In 1978, California passed Proposition thirteen, cutting property taxes by Just about sixty for each cent and inspiring other states to follow go well with; inside the early nineteen-eighties, with Ronald Reagan during the White Property, federal money flowing into condition coffers declined. With A growing number of states casting all-around for methods for their budgetary crises which might not enrage an more and more anti-tax electorate, the charm with the lottery unfold south and west.

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As Cohen relates in Probably the most intriguing chapter of his ebook, All those pro-lottery forces experienced a robust ally in Scientific Video games, Inc., a lottery-ticket maker that first manufactured a name for itself by pioneering scratch-off tickets. Besides providing prompt final results, these tickets, like Ikea home furnishings, provide the charm of active participation, which gives gamers the illusion of exercising some Command around the end result. Scratch-off tickets débuted to terrific success in Massachusetts in 1974; by 1976, every single condition lottery had jumped around the bandwagon. But that triumph offered a dilemma for Scientific Game titles, as it meant that the out there sector was saturated. To help keep growing its business, the corporation set about persuading more states to legalize the lottery. Starting from the late seventies, S.G.I. commenced selecting lobbyists, contracting with promotion corporations, producing astroturf citizens’ teams, and spending an incredible number of pounds to influence voters in Arizona, California, Colorado, Iowa, Missouri, Oregon, and the District of Columbia to pass lottery initiatives.

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Scientific Games wasn't the only real company supplying lottery providers, but its rivals had mainly eschewed lobbying, nominally outside of ethical issues but really since they were hesitant to spend revenue they wouldn’t recoup should they didn’t land the resulting contracts. S.G.I. bought close to this difficulty by making certain which the lottery initiatives it backed contained language—allegedly intended to protect against the involvement of organized crime—that expected extensive economic disclosures not simply from all the executives at organizations distributing a bid but from the many executives at their mother or father firms, far too. That need by yourself designed the bidding system too burdensome to be worthwhile for S.G.I.’s Main competitor, Webcraft Online games, because it was owned by Beatrice Foods, which at the time was larger than Lockheed Martin, 3M, and Coca-Cola. The S.G.I.-supported initiatives also mandated limited timelines to the bidding procedure, supplying the business a organizing edge while which makes it virtually difficult for anyone else to finish the paperwork in time.

Having said that dodgy this tactic may well have already been, it labored. Every single lottery initiative backed by S.G.I. succeeded—and, in every single circumstance, the organization was rewarded which has a agreement. That intended its lobbying financial investment paid out off, spectacularly; in California, For illustration, S.G.I. used $2.four million to go a lottery initiative, then won the resulting forty-million-dollar agreement. Wins like that quickly turned Scientific Video games into an unstoppable power in the lottery market. By 1982, the corporation experienced printed its 5-billionth ticket and was manufacturing a million more each individual hour. Simultaneously, the lottery business alone had develop into unstoppable, as well—thanks to S.G.I. plus the wave of legalizations, but additionally due to the introduction of a new version of an exceptionally previous recreation of possibility that, as Cohen writes, “fundamentally reshaped the put of lotteries in American Modern society.”

Based on a betting sport initially played in seventeenth-century Genoa, lotto is just not self-evidently groundbreaking—or, for instance, self-evidently appealing. To play, you guess a specific quantity of figures from the specified array. The Ny Lotto, As an example, demands 6 quantities amongst 1 and fifty-9; the North Carolina lotto, 5 numbers amongst one and forty-three. The chances of finding all of the numbers appropriate are absurdly very low—which, paradoxically, is why lotto revolutionized the industry.

Before the match was introduced, point out jackpots were fairly modest. Their dimension was restricted by the amount of gamers, since payouts mirrored a proportion of ticket product sales, in addition to by point out lottery commissions, which set a cap around the prize revenue; from 1964 to 1979, jackpots seldom exceeded one million bucks. But lotto was a rollover game: if a drawing was held and nobody received—a common incidence, given the chances—gamers could preserve shopping for tickets. For all those profiting with the lottery, this produced a virtuous cycle. Whenever the pot bought larger, more people have been tempted to order a ticket, as well as more and more people acquired tickets, The larger the pot grew to become.

The entire point was hugely counterintuitive—the worse the percentages of successful became, the more and more people planned to Engage in. Alexander Hamilton was proper: to the common particular person, the difference between just one-in-a few-million odds and a single-in-3-hundred-million odds didn’t matter, but the distinction between a three-million-greenback jackpot and A 3-hundred-million-greenback jackpot mattered enormously. Recognizing this, lottery commissioners started lifting prize caps and introducing much more numbers—say, six outside of fifty instead of 5 out of thirty—So creating the likelihood of profitable even smaller sized. The Big apple Lotto introduced, in 1978, with just one-in-3.8-million odds; these days, the odds are a single in forty-five million.

Even with all this, and to the despair of statisticians almost everywhere, lotto shortly became the country’s most favored lottery recreation. But Though ticket revenue and prize winnings soared, they didn't do so Similarly across the country, considering the fact that rollover jackpots disproportionately benefitted states with huge populations and therefore additional possible gamers. In reaction, lesser states banded collectively to sort multistate lotteries, a trend that culminated in Powerball and Mega Hundreds of thousands, Every single of which begun as a collaboration among A few states but has become performed everywhere you go the lottery is lawful. The resulting prizes are genuinely astronomical; this past July, two people who acquired a lottery ticket in Illinois bucked just one-in-3-hundred-and-two-million odds to win a $one.34-billion Mega Hundreds of thousands jackpot.

In certain respects, the fashionable American lotto sport is an item of technological alter; it couldn't have existed before computer packages that enabled states to understand roughly instantly no matter if anybody had acquired a ticket with the winning numbers. But Cohen helps make a persuasive situation that it had been also a product of cultural alter: the end of a shared reverence for Center-course security along with the rise, inside the nineteen-eighties, in the veneration of extravagant wealth. The years in which lotto reshaped the countrywide gambling scene have been the a long time of deregulation and Reaganomics, Donald J. Trump and Alex P. Keaton, the première of “Existence with the Prosperous and Famous” in addition to a remake of “Brewster’s Hundreds of thousands.” Pastors were being preaching the prosperity gospel; politicians had been singing the praises with the unfettered totally free current market. Suddenly, Cohen writes, “it was not taboo to collect an enormous fortune; neither was it offensive to indicate it off. Wealth—not the prosperity of blue-collar staff although the fortunes in their bosses—grew to become a way of reasserting the bounty of capitalism.”

The irony, as Cohen notes, is that this obsession with unimaginable wealth, such as the desire of hitting a multimillion-dollar lottery jackpot, corresponded to some decline in financial security for most working people today. Beginning from the nineteen-seventies and accelerating from the nineteen-eighties, the profits hole involving the abundant as well as bad widened, career security and pensions eroded, health and fitness-care expenditures and unemployment rose, and, for children born in All those many years, our prolonged-standing nationwide promise—that training and effort would render them improved off than their mothers and fathers—ceased to generally be genuine. Lifetime, since it turned out, imitated the lottery: for most Us residents, it absolutely was obtaining more challenging and tougher to win.

The lottery was supposed to make all this far better, not even worse. Its advocates claimed that, by filling state coffers without the need of growing condition taxes, it will maintain cash in the pockets of typical citizens. But this premise, which led point out soon after state to approve lotteries, was simply just untrue. Evidence from the main legalized lotteries speedily set compensated on the fantasy that they would provide ample profits to fund much in the business enterprise of running a point out. In New Jersey, where proponents experienced imagined proceeds over the get of many hundreds of millions of pounds, the lottery brought in 30-3 million dollars in its to start with 12 months—about two per cent of the condition’s revenue.

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When figures like that proved typical in the period, legalization advocates, no more capable to promote the lottery as a statewide silver bullet, ginned up other tactics as an alternative, usually with the assistance of Scientific Online games. In lieu of argue that a lottery would float almost all of a condition’s finances, they started boasting that it will include just one line item, invariably a federal government services that was preferred and nonpartisan—most often training, but at times elder treatment or general public parks or help for veterans. A person virtue of the narrower technique was that it manufactured campaigning for legalization simple. A vote for that lottery wasn't a means of supporting gambling but a strategy for supporting veterans; a vote from the lottery was a vote in opposition to schooling.

These campaignsตัว หวย were being extraordinarily powerful but, as with the earlier kinds, essentially misleading. For something, they, far too, wildly inflated the impression of lottery income on state funds. In California, where by an S.G.I.-backed lottery initiative handed following a large-profile marketing campaign touted it like a boon for schoolchildren, the resulting income lined, from the lottery’s initial yr, about five for each cent with the state education and learning spending plan. As of this year, according to the California Division of Schooling, lottery revenue accounts for around a person for each cent of all K-twelve funding.

But that was not the worst of it. Time and again, instruction and also other line goods that served to steer men and women to move lottery proposals did not essentially get any additional funding; as an alternative, the profits went into the state’s normal fund. Following this transpired in California, other states mandated that lottery income movement right into specified plans, but, as is so often the case, when just one loophole closes, A further one opens. In Illinois, Florida, and Virginia, amongst other states, the lottery revenue did indeed visit a selected education and learning fund—whereupon legislators offset All those gains by minimizing the money coming in from basic appropriations. Eventually, Cohen writes, “the lottery supplanted, rather then supplemented, point out investing on education and learning.”

Today, according to the Countrywide Conference of Point out Legislatures, lotteries bring in, on regular, about one particular for each cent of point out revenue every year. Like all dollars, it issues, but regardless of what change it helps make is offset by two problems. The 1st is lotteries have built it tougher than in the past to move Substantially necessary tax will increase, because, thanks to a long time of noisy campaigning followed by decades of heavy advertising, the general public wrongly believes that educational institutions together with other very important expert services are lavishly supported by gambling money. The second would be that the income lifted by lotteries comes mostly in the folks who can least afford to pay for to section with it. Every single point out lottery is regressive, meaning that it will require a disproportionate toll on reduced-revenue citizens. Prosperous persons do Engage in the lottery, of course; certainly one of the largest-ever Powerball jackpots, 1 / 4 of a billion dollars, was received by a few asset professionals from Greenwich, Connecticut. But the rich invest in much less tickets in comparison to the weak (other than when jackpots tactic ten figures); due to that and since their buys constitute a much scaled-down percentage of their money, participating in the lottery includes a much scaled-down influence on their pocketbooks. The real difference is often drastic: in accordance with the purchaser money corporation Bankrate, gamers generating much more than fifty thousand pounds per annum shell out, on regular, just one for every cent in their once-a-year cash flow on lottery tickets; All those building under 30 thousand dollars shell out thirteen for each cent. Meaning a person creating 20-7 thousand pounds loses some thirty-5 hundred dollars towards the lottery every year. To place that amount in context, almost sixty for each cent of american citizens have fewer than a thousand pounds in cost savings.

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Defenders from the lottery at times cast it like a tax about the Silly, which means both that players don’t understand how unlikely They're to earn or they take pleasure in the sport anyway. This suggests that lottery paying out is a completely private rather then a partly structural decision, but in reality it is responsive to financial fluctuation; as Cohen writes, “Lottery sales increase as incomes tumble, unemployment grows, and poverty premiums rise.” Just like all commercial solutions, lottery product sales also maximize with publicity to promotion—and lottery items are most closely promoted in neighborhoods that happen to be disproportionately lousy, Black, or Latino. In Texas, wherever the least wage is $7.25, you can buy a fifty-greenback scratch-off ticket in a Verify-cashing location or pick up Powerball and Mega Thousands and thousands tickets, like Snickers bars, although purchasing groceries at a Greenback Common. Nor are condition lottery commissions over availing by themselves in the psychology of dependancy. Almost everything in regards to the lottery—from ad campaigns towards the seem of your entrance from the tickets and The mathematics driving them—is built to keep gamers returning for more. None of the is especially diverse from your techniques of tobacco organizations or video-game brands. It just isn’t Commonly accomplished under the auspices of the government.

In the ultimate webpages of “For just a Dollar as well as a Desire,” Cohen, a fair and meticulous collector of data, at last puts his thumb on the size. Taking into consideration the regressive mother nature of state lotteries, their predatory procedures, their purpose in fostering gambling addictions, the way they discourage regular taxation, as well as their somewhat modest financial contributions, he concludes they “mustn't exist in the modern U . s ..” As he acknowledges, this recommendation is not going to be taken anytime soon; no state has repealed its lottery in a lot more than 100 and 20-five years. However, he argues, we must always do the job towards frequent-perception reforms, which include banning the sale of tickets on line, capping the price of scratch-off tickets and the scale of lotto jackpots, and, Probably most significant, closing a loophole that leaves lotteries exempt from File.T.C. regulation, and so free of charge within the constraints of reality-in-advertising and marketing regulations.

What would take place if condition lotteries waned in impact or vanished completely? Cohen surely overreaches when he promises that, “devoid of this kind of blinding beacon, extra People in america may very well be ready to Imagine critically in regards to the economic forces which have degraded entry to social mobility and have produced it more challenging for men and women to attain money safety.” But he is correct that governments in a democratic Culture should be while in the business of bettering the chances, not rigging the game, and that there are a great deal more equitable and effective techniques to the condition to employ its mighty powers to further improve life for its citizens. As the California Lottery set it in a 2013 advertising campaign, “Believe in a thing greater.” ♦

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